The Amalfi Coast is a 50-kilometer stretch of coastline along the southern edge of Italy’s Sorrentine Peninsula, in the Campania region. It’s a popular holiday destination, with sheer cliffs and a rugged shoreline dotted with small beaches and pastel-colored fishing villages. The coastal road between the port city of Salerno and clifftop Sorrento winds past grand villas, terraced vineyards and cliffside lemon groves.
Rome, Italy’s capital, is a sprawling, cosmopolitan city with nearly 3,000 years of globally influential art, architecture and culture on display. Ancient ruins such as the Forum and the Colosseum evoke the power of the former Roman Empire. Vatican City, headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church, has St. Peter’s Basilica and the Vatican Museums, which house masterpieces such as Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel frescoes.
Verona is a city in northern Italy’s Veneto region, with a medieval old town built between the meandering Adige River. It’s famous for being the setting of Shakespeare’s "Romeo and Juliet." A 14th-century residence with a tiny balcony overlooking a courtyard is said to be “Juliet’s House." The Verona Arena is a huge 1st-century Roman amphitheater, which currently hosts concerts and large-scale opera performances.
Venice, the capital of northern Italy’s Veneto region, is built on more than 100 small islands in a lagoon in the Adriatic Sea. It has no roads, just canals – including the Grand Canal thoroughfare – lined with Renaissance and Gothic palaces. The central square, Piazza San Marco, contains St. Mark’s Basilica, which is tiled with Byzantine mosaics, and the Campanile bell tower offering views of the city’s red roofs.
The Brooklyn Bridge is a hybrid cable-stayed/suspension bridge in New York City and is one of the oldest roadway bridges in the United States. Started in 1869 and completed fourteen years later in 1883, it connects the boroughs of Manhattan and Brooklyn, spanning the East River. It has a main span of 1,595.5 feet (486.3 m) and was the first steel-wire suspension bridge constructed.
It was originally called the New York and Brooklyn Bridge and the East River Bridge, but it was later dubbed the Brooklyn Bridge, a name coming from an earlier January 25, 1867, letter to the editor of the Brooklyn Daily Eagle and formally so named by the city government in 1915. Since opening, it has become an icon of New York City and was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964 and a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1972.
There’s no denying that helicopter rides are costly. Even the most basic tour packages run well over $150 per person and usually only last 12-15 minutes. Thus, for many, the price alone might mean that a helicopter tour just isn’t a feasible option. Furthermore, if you are looking to take a helicopter to learn more about New York, then perhaps you should consider following other tours instead. The pilot is your guide during these tours, and though he or she will most often point out major landmarks to guests, his or her main job is to ensure the safety of everyone on board. Thus, content is usually very limited. For a tour laden with information, check out one of many free walking tours.
However, if you can afford the costs and are primarily interested in the unique visual experience of looking down at Manhattan and coming eye to eye with the Statue of Liberty, then a helicopter tour might be well worth the investment. Though the ride is brief, it provides guests with a rare, bird’s eye view of the city that is otherwise impossible to achieve.
Helicopter Sightseeing tours provide you with a bird’s eye view of Manhattan and the surrounding area in comfort and style. Marvel at the splendid architecture of the Chrysler Building, the Empire State Building and more as you travel down the Hudson River to the New York Harbor and the Intrepid Sea Air Space Museum.
See the George Washington and Verrazano bridges that keep Manhattan connected. Delight in flying by New York’s historic landmarks, including the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, Greenwich Village, South Street Seaport, and the 120-year-old Brooklyn Bridge.
In New York City, horses are a symbol of a bygone era before the advent of cars, buses, and trains. It was during this time that New Yorkers got around from place to place on horseback or by means of horse-drawn carriage. As a result and over time, horses became iconic to the history of Manhattan.
Horse-Drawn Carriages are a wonderful way to experience the beauty of the Park. They can be found all year round lined up along Central Park South between 5th and 6th Avenues. Horse-drawn carriages are a unique and historical way to experience the beauty of Central Park. Visit well-known attractions like Belvedere Castle, the Lake, Strawberry Fields, Bethesda Fountain and the Mall. Customized rides for weddings, proposals, birthdays, anniversaries, and other special occasions are also available.
To get a picture-perfect panoramic view of the iconic skyline, you have to book the best helicopter tour NYC has to offer. While you can always catch a decent glimpse atop one of the city’s best rooftop bars, you’ll need to go just a little higher for that wide-angle shot of the best New York attractions, from Central Park to the Empire State Building. Whether you want to fly for 20 minutes or two hours, the guide to the best helicopter tours in NYC has to be the ideal chopper for your needs.
Liberty Cruise is the best way to see the Statue of Liberty and Liberty Island, South Street Seaport, Battery Park, Wall Street, Manhattan Bridge, the Brooklyn Bridge, Governor’s Island, Ellis Island, the historical Immigration Center, the World Trade Center, World Financial Center and many more. Liberty Cruise passes by all of the sites two times which doubles the opportunity to observe them and take pictures of New York Harbor’s priceless views. It departs from Pier 36, 299 South St. between Montgomery St. & Clinton St. This is a great opportunity to learn many historical and interesting facts about New York harbor. Liberty Cruises are narrated by live and licensed tour guides.
Sometimes the best way to see New York City is from the water. That's where New York Water Tours come in. Aboard a sprawling, open-air boat, the company whisks visitors through New York Harbor, passing beneath the Brooklyn Bridge and the Manhattan Bridge along the way. It also cruises past Battery Park and alongside famous landmarks including the pièce de résistance: the Statue of Liberty. Throughout the tour, guides share historical facts on everything from the origins of Wall Street to how Governor's Island began as City Comptroller's Island.
Explore the city skyline from our Liberty Cruise around the Statue of Liberty. With the help of an automated and live tour guide, you and your family couldn't find a more thorough and exciting sightseeing tour. Whether visiting for the first time or a New York native, you're guaranteed to fall in love with the city all over again.
Bus tours are a great way to see the most sites in the least amount of time. Especially in a city as vast and intimidating as New York, bus tours offer guests a way to get a taste of the Big Apple without having to deal with the stress of navigating these busy streets on your own.
You should never miss visiting lots of places in New York while your visit. You can find the list of places that you can visit through Bus Sightseeing tour.
1.Empire State Building
No visit to New York City would be complete without a stop at this masterpiece of Art Deco design, and perhaps the most famous office building in the world.
2. Statue of Liberty
A stirring symbol of freedom, the Statue of Liberty has been a beacon in New York Harbor since 1886. A gift from the people of France, the Statue was designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi and built by Gustave Eiffel.
3. Ellis Island Immigration Museum
Ellis Island, the portal through which millions of immigrants entered the United States, is a must-see for anyone interested in the personal stories of those who came to America in search of a new beginning.
4. American Museum of Natural History
Dinosaur fossils? Check. Theories of evolution? Check. Planetarium space show an IMAX theater? Double-check. It's no wonder the American Museum of Natural History was voted #1 attraction in New York City by the Zagat Survey "U.S. Family Travel Guide."
5. The Metropolitan Museum of Art
Known simply as "the Met," this museum offers an unparalleled view of the world, all under one roof. In total, the Met's collections include more than two million works of art that span over five thousand years of history.
6. Guggenheim Museum
Known as much for what’s on the outside as what’s on the inside, the Guggenheim Museum is simply stunning. Devoted to the art of the 20th century and beyond, the Guggenheim Museum is a must-see for anyone looking to see art from contemporary artists.
7. 9/11 Memorial
The 9/11 Memorial honors the thousands of people killed in the attacks on September 11, 2001, and those who died in the World Trade Center bombing in 1993.
8. Times Square
Located in Midtown Manhattan at the intersection of Broadway and Seventh Avenue, Times Square has often been referred to as The Crossroads of the World. Full of bright lights and billboards, it also serves as the hub of the Theater District.
9. St. Patrick's Cathedral
St. Patrick’s Cathedral may very well be one of New York’s most sacred and most treasured landmarks. This Neo-Gothic-style Roman Catholic cathedral is a very popular landmark and tourist destination.
10. Brooklyn Bridge
Suspended over the East River, the Brooklyn Bridge connects Manhattan to Brooklyn. Designated a national historic landmark in 1964, this engineering feat is one of America’s most famous bridges and one of New Yorks greatest attractions.
There's certainly no denying that Hawaii has a special charm. English is THE language of travel, used to communicate with locals and travelers. Having the locals speak English natively makes it much easier for many international travelers to visit the islands.
Hawaii has a variety of tropical fruits grown on the island, including pineapple, lychee, and guava amongst others. In addition, coffee and sugar cane plantations are plentiful, ensuring top-notch coffee. Naturally, the seafood selection is also nothing to scoff at, as well as the freshness and quality of the fish. I can't forget to mention native Hawaiian foods, including kalua pig, poi, lau-lau, etc. Shave ice is practically a native Hawaiian dessert itself -- I've never had such good shave ice in my life. Lastly, Hawaii is well-known for its abundance of fusion foods (spam musubi, etc).
Each of the Hawaiian islands boasts a stunning landscape, filled with waterfalls, rainforests, volcanoes, and beaches, beaches, beaches. Hawaiian flora is also well-known for its beauty (hibiscus, gardenias, plumerias, etc).
People love Hawaii for the opportunities it offers them to come up close to animals, including, hundreds of different fish species, spinner & bottlenose dolphins, sharks, whales, dozens of tropical bird species, and sea turtles.
Hawaii offers a multitude of different activities which range from extreme sports to world-class massages. Some of these include surfing, parasailing, golf, snorkeling, diving, shopping, hiking, deep sea fishing, kayaking, canoeing, swimming, and kiteboarding.
Although most of the bigger islands have their own airports, the major airport is HNL, Honolulu International Airport, located on Oahu. It is one of the busiest airports in the US, with over 21 million passengers a year. It has direct connections to the continental US, Australia, Fiji, Samoa, Tahiti, the Philippines, Japan, and South Korea, making it easy to get to.
Hawaii culture is an ancient blend of layers of ethnic influences and is a rich and unique tradition comprised of values, legends, music, dance, and customs. Part of what makes the islands of Hawaii so special, the culture is a big drawcard to this South Pacific holiday destination. Much more than spectacular sunsets, beautiful beaches, and excellent surfing, the Hawaii culture influences everything from language, religion, clothing, and cuisine on the islands. Below are some of the most fascinating facts about the Hawaii culture.
One of the most well-known customs of the Hawaii culture is the lei. Presented as a welcome gesture or on special occasions, a flower lei is an offer of friendship and should only be removed in private. Removing a lei in public is considered rude. Leis range from simple one-strand flower strings to large and elaborate garlands featuring tuberose, orchids and other floral blooms for important occasions.
The hula is another Hawaii culture icon and features colorful costumes and grass skirts, graceful hand movements and the signature swaying hips. Originally men only dance, the hula is now an expression of happiness and fun that can be performed by both men and women. The ancient form of the hula known as hula kahiko is accompanied by percussion and storytelling and is featured in ceremonies or for religious reasons. Costumes are far more colorful in this version and piano guitars or ukuleles provide a rhythm.
Music is an important part of Hawaii culture and has evolved from primal drumbeats to a chorus of chanting voices and even more recently into a modern version of traditional music by a number of genres and artists. These include hapa-haole (a type of music that marries English lyrics with Hawaiian melodies), kolohe (a type of hula renowned for being naughty or a tease), chalangalang, traditional, jawaiian, luau and more.
Wallis and Futuna are located due north of Fiji, where they are occasionally frequented by visitors, regularly abandoned by locals in search of jobs and peppered with a generous offering of French food and champagne. You could call it a slice of France in the Pacific if French Polynesia hadn't taken the title already. It's the second - the forgotten - slice, one of typical Pacific beauty and aquatic pleasures.
The first missionary to Futuna, one Pierre Chanel, was martyred four years into his evangelical run. His work was done though: the first Oceanian nation to martyr a missionary has transformed into a devoutly religious entity where church buildings spring up like palm trees. These beautiful churches provide for one of the highlights of travel to Wallis and Futuna.
Wallis and Futuna, officially the Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands, is a French island collectivity in the South Pacific between Tuvalu to the northwest, Fiji to the southwest, Tonga to the southeast, Samoa to the east, and Tokelau to the northeast. Though both French and Polynesian, Wallis and Futuna is distinct from the entity known as French Polynesia.
Its land area is 142.42 km2 (54.99 sq mi) with a population of about 12,000. Mata-Utu is the capital and biggest city. The territory is made up of three main volcanic tropical islands along with a number of tiny islets, and is split into two island groups that lie about 260 km (160 mi) apart, namely the Wallis Islands (Uvea) in the northeast, and the Hoorn Islands (also known as the Futuna Islands) in the southwest, including Futuna Island proper and the mostly uninhabited Alofi Island.
The overwhelming majority (99%) of the people in Wallis and Futuna are Catholics, served by their own Roman Catholic Diocese of Wallis and Futuna. The culture of Wallis and Futuna is Polynesian and is very similar to the cultures of its neighboring nations Samoa and Tonga. The Wallisian and Futunan cultures share very similar components in language, dance, cuisine and modes of celebration.
Fishing and agriculture are the traditional practices and most people live in traditional fate houses in an oval shape made of thatch.
Basilica of St. Peter Channel in Poi – Futuna. Unusual, impressive church building with a stepped tower, built in 1986. Built to commemorate a martyr Pierre Channel, who was killed here in 1841.
Lalolalo Lake – Wallis. Around lake - volcanic crater. The lake is surrounded by steep, up to 30 m tall walls. Lake is almost inaccessible due to these walls.
Lanu’tavake – Wallis. Around crater lake, once used as a source of drinking water.
Le Toagatoto (Marais Sanglants) – Wallis. A historical place where a battle between the native people of Wallis and Tongan army took place. This is marsh which, according to the locals, still is haunted. Remnants of stone walls.
Loka Cave – Alofi. A natural grotto where a shrine to St. Bernadette has been established.
Mata-Utu Cathedral – Wallis. The large church building in Neo-Romanesque style, built in 1951 – 1967.
Talietumu (Kolo Noi) – Wallis. Remnants of a fortified Tongan settlement, developed in 1450 AD, the last stronghold of Tongans in Wallis. The settlement is surrounded by a massive stone wall with several entrances. The central structure is raised stone platform – Talietumu, a shrine. It is raised 5 m high and is 80 m long. The complex architecture of the structure has important symbolic meaning.
Tepa Church – Wallis. Imposing church building with a semicircular tower.
Oral tradition holds that the Samoan archipelago was created by the god Tagaloa at the beginning of history. Until 1997, the western islands were known as Western Samoa or Samoa I Sisifo to distinguish them from the nearby group known as American Samoa or Amerika Samoa. The distinction was necessitated by the partitioning of the archipelago in 1899. All Samoans adhere to a set of core social values and practices known as fa'a Samoa and speak the Samoan language. The official name today is Samoa.
Samoan dance traditions reflect contact between Samoan culture and other cultures from the East and West. Influences from rap can be detected, but traditional Samoan styles of movement and traditional clothing are also used. The space in which dance is conducted has been interpreted as a microcosm of Samoan society.
The Maulu'ulu is an indigenous dance performed by the Samoan people. Contemporary maulu'ulu compositions and choreographies are generally performed by female dancers, although some villages have a tradition of men and women dancing together. The maulu'ulu was one of several dance forms (such as Taualuga) and choral song styles (including 'otuhaka) that were adopted and adapted into the Kingdom of Tonga during the late 19th century through cultural diffusion. The considerable divergence of technique and choreography now differentiate the Samoan maulu'ulu from the Tongan Ma'ulu'ulu although their common origin continues to be celebrated.
The Manu Siva Tau is a Samoan war dance, performed by the Samoan sporting teams before each match.
The national rugby union team used to perform the traditional 'Maulu'ulu Moa' on tour. Prior to the 1991 World Cup, the 'Manu' war chant was composed, it was considered to be more effective at psyching up players.The national Australian rules football team performs the Siva Tau at its International Cup appearances. In WWE, The Usos, as faces, performed the Siva Tau as part of their ring entrance.
The fire knife is a traditional Samoan cultural implement that is used in ceremonial dances. It was originally composed of a machete wrapped in towels on both ends with a portion of the blade exposed in the middle. Tribal performers of fire knife dancing (or Siva Afi or even "Ailao Afi" as it is called in Samoa) dance while twirling the knife and doing other acrobatic stunts. The towels are set afire during the dances thus explaining the name.
Dances in Samoa would reflect on everyday life activities. In the 19th century, there was an invasion of mosquitoes to the Kingdom, which later on became another part of everyday life, and it was there that the Fa'ataupati was created from when a man would forcefully slap his body.[citation needed] This dance mimics a person slapping the mosquitoes off their body when bitten. From then on it became part of the Samoan culture.
American Samoa consists of five main islands and two coral atolls. The largest and most populous island is Tutuila, with the Manuʻa Islands, Rose Atoll, and Swains Island also included in the territory. All islands except for Swains Island are part of the Samoan Islands, located west of the Cook Islands, north of Tonga, and some 300 miles (500 km) south of Tokelau. To the west are the islands of the Wallis and Futuna group.
The total land area is 199 square kilometers (76.8 sq mi), slightly more than Washington, D.C. American Samoa is the southernmost territory of the U.S. and one of two U.S. territories south of the Equator, along with the uninhabited Jarvis Island. Tuna products are the main exports, and the main trading partner is the United States.
Guam is a U.S. island territory in Micronesia, in the Western Pacific. It's distinguished by tropical beaches, Chamorro villages, and ancient latte-stone pillars. Guam’s WWII significance is on view at the War in the Pacific National Historical Park, whose sites include Asan Beach, a former battlefield. The island’s Spanish colonial heritage is evident in Fort Nuestra Señora de la Soledad, atop a bluff in Umatac.
Cocos Island, Ritidian Point, Mount Lamlam, Guam National Wildlife Refuge, Two Lovers Point, Tumon Beach, Plaza De Espana, Fort Nuestra Senora de la Soledad, Gun Beach, Talofofo Falls, Guam Museum, Paseo De Susana Park, Pacific War Museum, Inarajan Natural Pool, Tagada Amusement Park, Tarza Water Fall can be the point of interest for travelers.
This short video was taken while traveling a small island of Micronesia, Atroll Island. What we have noticed is they don't wear clothes like we do. we can tell that its a tribe people that we can see in the video in our language but found them more satisfied and caring rather than we generally do in our bustling life.
Hats off to Micronesian people from explore the world through traveling's team.
As you move throughout the water during the course of a dive, your muscles tend to work harder than they would if you were outside the water. This is due to the resistance of the water but also the current. The more you dive and swim, the more your muscles lengthen, build strength and develop endurance as well as flexibility.
2. Breathing
Breathing whilst diving is slow and deep, which is essential when conserving and optimizing your air consumption. During a dive, you breathe in and tend to breathe out slower which reduces the heart rate, promoting calm.
3. Can Lower Blood Pressure
When first diving into the water, a divers heart rate might spike and the blood pressure will rise slightly, this may be due to excitement, adrenaline and even the cold water. For the majority of dives, we usually find ourselves in water which is lower than our body temperature. When our body is immersed in cold water, our blood vessels on the surface of our bodies tend to constrict to conserve heat for our internal organs, which may cause our hearts to race.
4. Maintains and Increase Fitness Levels
Before we scuba dive, a diver should already have a good level of fitness so as to not exert the body too much throughout a dive which could put the diver at risk of DCS (Decompression Sickness). However, Scuba Diving can be quite unpredictable and because of this, you may find yourself swimming against the current for a short amount of time, this repetitive movement of the legs against the resistance of the water can help to maintain as well as increase your fitness levels (it is certainly better for you than sitting on the sofa watching TV)!
5. Traveling To Warmer Climates
It is, of course possible to dive in colder climates, however usual dives include traveling to warmer parts of the world. With warmer parts of the world comes holiday, adventure, excitement and experiences, which can only do great things for your body, mind and soul.
6. Healing Effects of the Water
The water has many healing effects, one of which is the way it brings you back to feeling like you are in your mother’s womb. This promotes feelings of security, well-being and happiness. In addition, being in salt water for long periods of time can cause your body to dehydrate meaning that you tend to drink a lot more after the dive which means that you are replenishing your cells, receiving all of the benefits of water both externally and internally.
7. Interaction with Marine Life
When exploring the marine life surrounding you on your dive, your body is flooded with excitement, wonder and awe. Seeing the sheer variety of fish, corals and critters is enough to put anyone in a good mood. However, it has in fact been proven that seeing certain colours can affect the brain in many different ways. Seeing certain colours can help to change and improve your mood. Scientists believe that if we are subjected to bright and intense colours, similar to what we might find surrounding reefs, can help to promote feelings of happiness as well as feeling of being uplifted. In addition, the colour blue has been known to induce a calming effect on the body.
8. Exposure To Sunlight
It is essential for the body to be exposed to sunlight, this is in order to create Vitamin D. Vitamin D not only helps the rate of absorption of calcium, it also helps the cells pass calcium to each other. This higher absorption rate of calcium helps to keep the bones healthy and strong. Exposure to sunlight also helps to increase endorphin production within our brains.
9. Socializing Benefits
When you go diving, if you are not already diving with a partner, you are paired up with a buddy. These people are usually like-minded individuals who share a common interest. Whenever you are on a dive boat or diving from shore, it is always easy to make friends and meet new people. It is also very easy to feel a sense of community when scuba diving and often go out after your dives. It gives a wonderful feeling after having an incredible experience during a dive and being able to share it with your fellow divers.
10. A Great Stress Reliever
When we breathe throughout a dive, we tend to breathe slowly and deeply, similar to the breathing we do whilst meditating. Slowed breathing induces a state of calm, whilst the diver enjoys their underwater surroundings. Everything that may be happening to the person in their everyday lives including; work issues, family issues and money worries all get left at the surface. All problems are forgotten during a dive. Having this ‘time out’ gives the body a chance to rest and bring their body and nervous system back to a natural balance. Studies have shown that having a relaxed and calm mind has been known to promote a positive mental attitude, helping you deal with your issues in a calm and rational way without feelings of depression.
While the vast majority of coral species are basically harmless and personal injuries during encounters with varying species are rare at best, as well as typically consisting of minor grazes or cuts, one type of coral, namely fire coral, can deliver quite a nasty sting.
Fire coral
There are currently believed to be at least 48 different species of fire coral. The main reason why scuba divers are advised to wear gloves is that these corals can deliver a painful sting that typically causes some or all of the following symptoms:
Small welts with red lesions around them
Blisters
Swelling
Pus-filled encystations
Nausea and vomiting
As a rule, these symptoms will disappear fairly quickly (typically within no more than 24 hours). Anaphylactic shock or allergic reactions could, however, make a fire coral sting far more dangerous and potentially fatal.
All Fire corals are calcareous hydrozoans and belong to the genus, Millepora. The other calcareous hydrozoans, including the azooxanthellate lace corals, species of Stylaster and Distichopora, are closely related to Millepora but are put into a different taxonomic group. Being hydrozoans rather than anthozoans, Millepora is not true stony corals, although their abundance does allow them to be a major contributor to reef structure and sediments. Fire corals are found in tropical seas, worldwide, predominantly on reef crests and in shallow waters subject to high water movement. For an unknown reason, they are conspicuously absent from the reefs of Hawaii. Rapid proliferation of fragmentation allows rapid growth and encrustation of Millepora on the windward reef crests. Upright branching and vertical plating growth forms are found in areas removed from severe wave action.
Unfortunately, the taxonomy of the Fire corals is in need of revision and is not particularly useful. There are at least 48 reported species of Millepora throughout the world. However, because of inter-specific variations of form and color due to different lighting intensities, water movement, and other environmental factors, it is not known how many distinct species are present. In the Caribbean, three types of Fire corals predominate a branching or crenelated form (M. alcicornis), a plate-like or flat-topped form (M. complanata), and an encrusting or box-like form (M. squarrosa). Similar morphological types are found in the Indo-Pacific regions, although the regional differences are more varied, and more species (both classified and unclassified) are reported from these oceans. Commonly seen Fire corals from these regions include encrusting, clavate, blade-like, upright, and branching calcareous growth patterns. A behavior common to encrusting Millepora species worldwide is a tendency to completely encrust living sessile organisms, particularly gorgonians. The result is a shape that is often taken to be representative of the Millepora species, when in fact it is representative of the shape of the encrusted object. Given the varied growth forms of these hydrozoans, it may be surprising to learn that the living animals are so similar.
As scuba diving is a popular recreational sport, beautiful coral reefs and eerie shipwrecks around the world have become major tourist draws in their own right. However, it should not be forgotten that scuba diving is an extreme sport with its own peculiar injuries and potentially life-threatening hazards. Most of these scuba diving dangers stem from the effects of the increased water pressure of the undersea environment, but there are also dangers posed by sea life and faulty equipment.
Barotrauma
Barotrauma is caused by the damage done by increased underwater pressure on the air pocket in the middle ear. Divers usually "equalize" during a dive by pinching their nose shut and blowing, by chewing or by swallowing to push more air into the middle air. However, a descent that is too rapid can overcome a diver's ability to equalize and result in severe pain and even injury to the middle ear.
Decompression Sickness
Often called "the bends," decompression sickness is caused by increased underwater pressure causing the body's tissues to absorb more nitrogen. If that pressure is suddenly reduced, this extra nitrogen forms potentially harmful bubbles. Deep divers return to the surface in carefully monitored stages so as to control the rate at which this absorbed nitrogen is released. Depending on the amount of nitrogen absorbed and the rate at which it was released, a case of the bends can range from aching joints or a skin rash to paralysis and death.
Nitrogen Narcosis
Another nitrogen-related danger is the narcotic effect of all that extra nitrogen in the body. Anyone who has had nitrous-oxide gas at the dentist is already familiar with this effect. Nitrogen narcosis is a danger because it impairs judgment and sensory perception. As with the bends, the degree of nitrogen narcosis is related to how deep a diver goes and how much nitrogen they absorb.
Oxygen Toxicity
Oxygen toxicity is usually a problem only encountered by deep divers who go below 135 feet. Like nitrogen, the body absorbs extra oxygen under increased underwater pressure as well. For most divers, this is not a problem, but at extreme depths, so much extra oxygen is absorbed that this life-giving gas becomes toxic. The effects range from tunnel vision and/or nausea to twitching to loss of consciousness and/or seizures.
Pulmonary Embolism
Another risk facing a diver who rapidly ascends to the surface is a pulmonary embolism. The increased pressure of the undersea environment results in the gas a diver breathes becoming denser, as more gas is crammed into the same space under pressure. The gas held in the lungs will expand at the same rate that the pressure on the body is reduced to a rapid ascent can cause the lungs to swell and even pop like a balloon. Scuba divers guard against pulmonary embolism by making slow, controlled ascents to the surface and by never holding their breath.
Sea Life
Divers should never forget that each dive is the equivalent of entering an untamed wilderness. While most sea creatures are not aggressive towards divers and attacks are extremely rare, incidents do happen and a diver cannot afford to forget that she is surrounded by wild animals. The famed TV wildlife host "Crocodile Hunter" Steve Irwin was killed in 2006 when he was stung through the chest by a stingray, a frequently encountered and usually harmless sea creature. Divers should always treat sea life with great care and respect.
Defective Equipment
Many casual scuba divers do not own their own equipment and are therefore reliant on renting equipment from the scuba diving operator who is conducting their dive trip. A broken depth gauge could lead to a mild case of decompression sickness, while a bad regulator might result in drowning. A diver should always thoroughly check rented scuba diving equipment, and never be shy about asking for a new piece of gear if they suspect something is wrong with what they have.
A well-planned dive can make the difference between an excellent dive and a mediocre dive. Chances are, when you took your Open Water Diver certification course, you learned to plan a dive with some sort of planning tool—dive tables or a dive computer. That covers depth & time for safety, but there is a lot more to dive planning. Let’s take a look at five steps to dive planning and how they make your dive better.
1. Pick a dive site.
Sounds simple enough, right? Think about your experience level and your buddy’s experience level. Is the site you chose something you’re familiar with? Or is it a site that requires advanced skills that you and/or your buddy may not have mastered? For example, if you’ve spent most of your diving in calm water with minimal or no wave action or surge, trying to make a surf entry might be difficult. If you need to, get some expert advice and additional training before diving that site.
2. Decide on a dive objective with your buddy.
Knowing what you’re both going to do can eliminate a lot of frustration. If you want to take photos and your buddy wants to zoom around on a DPV, you’re probably going to have some issues. Having a shared objective will also help you stay together. Remember, your buddy is there to help you and you’re there to help your buddy, so stay together.
3. Plan your depth & time.
This can go beyond just looking at your computer and it says you can spend 50 minutes at 65 feet. Think about your air consumption and your buddy’s air consumption. If you typically empty a tank in 45 minutes, planning a 50-minute dive might be asking for trouble. You need to use either a computer or table to maintain a degree of safety for decompression sickness, but failing to think about how you use the air can set you up for an emergency ascent. If you’re going to do a multilevel dive (starting at the deepest part of the site and moving shallower as the dive progresses), that will help you with air consumption and nitrogen loading. A dive computer makes this very easy. If you don’t have one, using a tool like PADI’s eRDPML digital dive planner is the next best thing.
4. Have a contingency plan.
Things happen on a dive. You see an amazing school of fish and you just want to stop and watch. Without planning on it, ten minutes have passed that you’d not bargained for. Or maybe you see something that’s just a bit deeper than you’d planned to be and you want to check it out. Use your computer or dive planner to have some options. If you want to go deeper, you can’t stay as long. If you stay longer in one spot, you might need to adjust your plan. Don’t forget to add a safety stop, too. At sea-level and up to 1000ft/300m above sea level, this is three minutes at 15 feet. Above 1000ft/300m, you need to adjust your safety stop depth. Altitude Diver specialty training can help out here.
5. Make your dive! Kit up with your buddy. Do a pre-dive safety check (BWRAF-check BCDs, weights, releases, air and a final check for everything else, including any special equipment).
Enter the water using an appropriate entry. Check your weighting and make a 5-point descent (SORTeD-signal your buddy, orient your self to something on land, swap your snorkel for a regulator, note the time, equalize your ears and descend). Equalizing your ears before you descend can really help out, rather than waiting until you’re five feet down. Enjoy your dive with your buddy, carrying out your dive objective. Ascend, make a safety stop, then surface cautiously. Inflate your BCD once you’re on the surface and exit the water.
There you go. Five easy steps to dive planning. Now, GO DIVE!
Scuba diving is one of the most popular “water sports” with its worldwide popularity constantly on the rise. And while you should gain the necessary basic knowledge during your PADI Curse Open Water Diver, here are 10 interesting facts the books most probably won’t mention.
• SCUBA stands for “Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus”
• The modern wetsuit was invented by the American physicist, Hugh Brandner, in 1952. One of the first (and very successful) wetsuit manufacturers was O’Neill.
• If you spit in your dive mask prior to the dive, as gross as it may be, it will actually prevent the mask from fogging. This is because the spit will coat the lens and the layer will be too smooth for the condensed vapor to hold on to. If you don’t want to spit, the soap or detergent will do the same trick.
• Every year over 70 unprovoked shark attacks are reported worldwide.
• Sharks have unfairly gained a bad reputation thanks to the horror movie Jaws (1975). However, far more people are killed by the lightning in the US, than by sharks.
• Oxygen becomes toxic under high pressure. That is why special gases with a lower concentration of oxygen are provided for dives deeper than 42m.
• Water absorbs light rapidly, that’s why scuba diving rookies might feel disappointed that the underwater world actually looks a little bit less colorful than in the TV documentaries. The color that is absorbed the quickest is red. Hence the red filters for the underwater cameras like GoPro and others. The color red is followed by orange, yellow, green and blue.
• If you think you are passionate about scuba diving, try to beat the Guinness world record of a Turkish scuba diver who managed to scuba dive in the open water for almost SIX DAYS!
• While official statistics of scuba diving injuries would mention barotraumatic injuries as the number one injury related to scuba diving, in reality, broken fingers or broken noses are the most common ones. So think twice next time you float to close the boat ladder while another diver is trying to climb up or when carrying tanks and weights.
• Finding Nemo was without the doubt one of the most successful and memorable Pixar movies. And the art team didn’t leave anything to chance. To understand the underwater world better, they took scuba diving courses in oceanography, marine biology and more.
A coral reef is a type of biotic reef that develops in tropical waters by the growth of coralline algae, hermatypic corals, and other marine organisms.
Coral reefs are typically massive biogenic formations of calcium carbonate (limestone) that is deposited within or around the bodies of the inhabitants of the reef as skeletal material.
This material gradually accumulates as debris and/or is knitted together by the continued growth of the attached forms living on the reef.
The corals that form the structure of the great reef ecosystems of tropical seas depend on these symbiotic photosynthesizing unicellular algae called "zooxanthellae" that live within their tissues.
When the zooxanthellae are expelled, the coral loses its pigment, leading to a bleached or completely white appearance.
Toxins are produced when water temperatures rise.
Southeast Asian coral reefs have the highest levels of biodiversity for the world's marine ecosystems.
They serve many functions, such as forming the core of livelihood for subsistence fishermen and even function as jewelry and construction materials.
There are many reasons to learn to scuba dive. It may be something to mark off your bucket list, a reason to travel or even a way to escape the effects of gravity.
If you’ve been thinking about it and haven’t taken the plunge, here is a top 10 list of reasons to learn to dive.
1. Explore parts of the world that many don’t get to see
The ocean covers 71 percent of the earth’s surface. If your goal is to “see the world” then you’ll need to learn to scuba dive.
2. You have a place to escape everyday technology and Zen out
There are no phone calls to answer or emails to respond to underwater. Your attention is focused on breathing and what you see through your mask (which most of the time is pretty awesome!).
3. Experience weightlessness
Is gravity always bringing you down? Learn to dive and feel the sweet spot of neither sinking nor floating.
4. Improve your equalization skills for flights and mountain drives
Once you master equalizing your ears on a dive, you can do it anywhere.
5. Relive the vast amount of history that lies beneath the sea
You can explore wrecks that sit at the bottom of the ocean, including World War ships and planes.
wreck diving
6. Tank carrying muscles help you be better at bowling
7. Master of non-verbal communications
Scuba divers learn to communicate underwater without speaking. The “this way to the exit” hand signal is very handy when you want to signal your date that it’s time to leave the party!
8. Impress others with your newly acquired knowledge
You’ll learn about PSI and compressed air in your scuba cylinder. Since you know an empty tank weighs less than a full tank, you’ll know that a deflated football weighs less than one fully inflated.
9. You can one-up your friends on social media
This is especially useful if you have a lot of friends who run marathons…
10. You know that “Keep Calm and Carry On” is a real thing
After you get certified you’ll understand the importance of making your air supply last. The trick is to breathe slowly and move deliberately. Good advice for the surface too.
We want to thank Manaraj Lama "Dive Master in the Republic of Palau" for sending us his video of snorkeling and diving to Explore the world through traveling. If you want to add your travel video to this channel, just e-mail us.
Snorkeling is a popular recreational activity, particularly at tropical resort locations. The primary appeal is the opportunity to observe underwater life in a natural setting without the complicated equipment and training required for scuba diving. It appeals to all ages because of how little effort there is, and without the exhaled bubbles of scuba-diving equipment. It is the basis of the two surface disciplines of the underwater sport of finswimming.
Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.
Barracudas are perhaps one of the most feared marine creatures for non-divers but those in the know crave underwater encounters with these sleek and misunderstood creatures. However, many such divers might agree that their villain appearance could send a shiver down the spine. With a set of fang-like teeth, no wonder barracuda are considered brutal predators.
But the question is, are they really as dangerous as they are perceived to be? Well, despite their appearance and predatory success, reports of attacks on humans are very rare indeed.
In fact, this creature is more famous as a photographic model rather than as a criminal of the sea. Divers dream of being in the middle of a tornado of barracudas as they slowly circle around and around in a vortex. This can be one of the most memorable experiences in their log-books and scuba diving memories. So forget about their brutal legend and let's get to know this supposedly fearsome and undoubtedly interesting creature.
Barracudas are of the genus Sphyraena, which in Latin, means a 'pike-like' fish. They have developed a highly efficient body, perfectly adapted as a successful predator of the ocean. Their bodies are elongated and slender, perfect for sneaking through the reefs when hunting. They have large mouths and a pair of powerful jaws. The lower jaw juts out slightly and they have unequally sized fang-like teeth which have earned them the nickname 'Tiger of the Sea'.
Other distinguishing features are the 2 extensively separated dorsal fins and a forked tail fin which makes them fast swimmers. Like most fish, barracuda do not have eyelids. If you see one moving very slowly, it is possible that they are actually asleep. However when asleep, they are still alert for danger. You would be wise to avoid disturbing one from its sleep since it may react aggressively to such a rude awakening.
In terms of coloration, barracudas are normally grey or silver on top fading into white on the belly with whitish tips on their dark violet caudal fins. Their size varies depending on species.
Worldwide, there are 26 species of barracuda. It is normal for scuba divers to come across more than 1 species at certain dive sites, so it pays to be able to identify the different species.
To distinguish the great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda) from other species, you could look for the black spots on the lower sides of its body. Additionally there are usually about 18 to 25 dark bars present on the upper side of each fish. The tail also has 2 dark bars or tips, 1 on the lower fin and 1 on the upper. It is the largest in the genus, usually about 1.5 metre long but may reach as much as 1.8 metres and weigh 50 kg. It is widely dispersed, being present in the Indian, Pacific, east and west Atlantic, and Caribbean Sea.
Generally, adult barracudas are considered to be solitary when it comes to hunting. Most young juveniles tend to gather in large schools, sometimes in numbers up to hundreds or even thousands. Schooling offers the young fish protection from predators on the basis of safety in numbers.
Often, when a predator attacks a school, the school would form a confusing tornado, preventing any one barracuda being fixed upon as prey in the eyes of the predator. For hunting purposes, the many eyes of the school normally cooperate in finding food. Although a large school means a smaller division of food among them, it actually benefits the individuals both in terms of protection and food detection.
Barracudas usually associate with other fishes such as bar jacks, rainbow runners and big eye trevally (usually associated with Sphyraena genie). Perhaps, one association that these fish are addicted to is the cleaning performed by cleaner wrasse.
The larger species such as Sphyraena barracuda are solitary and not found in schools.
Hunting for food is a serious business for barracudas and thanks to their sharp eyesight and powerful jaws, they are one of a few predators towards the top of the food chain. Known to be extremely opportunistic, they often camouflage near sea grass to ambush unsuspecting prey, and move fast (over 40 km/h) through corals reefs hunting for food. When attacking they do so with a single clean bite of deadly consequence.
They are not fussy eaters at all and mainly feed on smaller fishes such as snapper, grunts, mullets and bream. That said cannibalism is part of barracuda culture. Their powerful jaws can also allow attack on larger fish since they will chop the bigger fish in half. So ultimately anything that seems edible may be fair game and end up in their bellies!
They are said to be attracted to reflective, metallic objects that resemble the types of silver fishes they most commonly eat, so divers might be wise to avoid wearing earrings or other jewelry in their presence if they want to avoid being mistaken for a light snack.
Scuba diving is a form of underwater diving where the diver uses a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (scuba) which is completely independent of surface supply, to breathe underwater.Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, allowing them greater independence and freedom of movement than surface-supplied divers, and longer underwater endurance than breath-hold divers. Open circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver through a regulator. They may include additional cylinders for decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of the open circuit; therefore, a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open circuit for the same gas consumption, they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than scuba which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference.
Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers.
A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by instructors affiliated to the diver certification organizations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organizations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications.
Barracudas are perhaps one of the most feared marine creatures for non-divers but those in the know crave underwater encounters with these sleek and misunderstood creatures. However, many such divers might agree that their villain appearance could send a shiver down the spine. With a set of fang-like teeth, no wonder barracuda are considered brutal predators.
But the question is, are they really as dangerous as they are perceived to be? Well, despite their appearance and predatory success, reports of attacks on humans are very rare indeed.
In fact, this creature is more famous as a photographic model rather than as a criminal of the sea. Divers dream of being in the middle of a tornado of barracudas as they slowly circle around and around in a vortex. This can be one of the most memorable experiences in their log-books and scuba diving memories. So forget about their brutal legend and let's get to know this supposedly fearsome and undoubtedly interesting creature.
Barracudas are of the genus Sphyraena, which in Latin, means a 'pike-like' fish. They have developed a highly efficient body, perfectly adapted as a successful predator of the ocean. Their bodies are elongated and slender, perfect for sneaking through the reefs when hunting. They have large mouths and a pair of powerful jaws. The lower jaw juts out slightly and they have unequally sized fang-like teeth which have earned them the nickname 'Tiger of the Sea'.
Other distinguishing features are the 2 extensively separated dorsal fins and a forked tail fin which makes them fast swimmers. Like most fish, barracuda do not have eyelids. If you see one moving very slowly, it is possible that they are actually asleep. However, when asleep, they are still alert for danger. You would be wise to avoid disturbing one from its sleep since it may react aggressively to such a rude awakening.
In terms of coloration, barracudas are normally grey or silver on top fading into white on the belly with whitish tips on their dark violet caudal fins. Their size varies depending on species.
Worldwide, there are 26 species of barracuda. It is normal for scuba divers to come across more than 1 species at certain dive sites, so it pays to be able to identify the different species.
To distinguish the great barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda) from other species, you could look for the black spots on the lower sides of its body. Additionally, there are usually about 18 to 25 dark bars present on the upper side of each fish. The tail also has 2 dark bars or tips, 1 on the lower fin and 1 on the upper. It is the largest in the genus, usually about 1.5 meters long but may reach as much as 1.8 meters and weigh 50 kg. It is widely dispersed, being present in the Indian, Pacific, east and west Atlantic, and the Caribbean Sea.
Generally, adult barracudas are considered to be solitary when it comes to hunting. Most young juveniles tend to gather in large schools, sometimes in numbers up to hundreds or even thousands. Schooling offers the young fish protection from predators on the basis of safety in numbers.
Often, when a predator attacks a school, the school would form a confusing tornado, preventing anyone barracuda being fixed upon as prey in the eyes of the predator. For hunting purposes, the many eyes of the school normally cooperate in finding food. Although a large school means a smaller division of food among them, it actually benefits the individuals both in terms of protection and food detection.
Barracudas usually associate with other fishes such as bar jacks, rainbow runners and big eye trevally (usually associated with Sphyraena genie). Perhaps, one association that these fish are addicted to is the cleaning performed by the cleaner wrasse.
The larger species such as Sphyraena barracuda are solitary and not found in schools.
Hunting for food is a serious business for barracudas and thanks to their sharp eyesight and powerful jaws, they are one of a few predators towards the top of the food chain. Known to be extremely opportunistic, they often camouflage near sea grass to ambush unsuspecting prey and move fast (over 40 km/h) through corals reefs hunting for food. When attacking they do so with a single clean bite of deadly consequence.
They are not fussy eaters at all and mainly feed on smaller fishes such as snapper, grunts, mullets, and bream. That said cannibalism is part of barracuda culture. Their powerful jaws can also allow an attack on larger fish since they will chop the bigger fish in half. So ultimately anything that seems edible may be fair game and end up in their bellies!
They are said to be attracted to reflective, metallic objects that resemble the types of silver fishes they most commonly eat, so divers might be wise to avoid wearing earrings or other jewelry in their presence if they want to avoid being mistaken for a light snack.
Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colorful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specializations adapted to survival on the reefs.
Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans, but still, they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species. Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99% of the world oceans.
However, loss and degradation of coral reef habitat, increasing pollution, and over-fishing including the use of destructive fishing practices, are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish.
Reef fish have also evolved complex adaptive behaviors. Small reef fish get protection from predators by hiding in reef crevices or by shoaling and schooling. Many reef fish confine themselves to one small neighborhood where every hiding place is known and can be immediately accessed. Others cruise the reefs for food in shoals but return to a known area to hide when they are inactive. Resting small fish are still vulnerable to attack by crevice predators, so many fish, such as triggerfish, squeeze into a small hiding place and wedge themselves by erecting their spines.
As an example of the adaptations made by reef fish, the yellow tang is a herbivore which feeds on benthic turf algae. They also provide cleaning services to marine turtles, by removing an algal growth from their shells. They do not tolerate other fish with the same color or shape. When alarmed, the usually placid yellow tang can erect spines in its tail and slash at its opponent with rapid sideways movements.
Coral reefs are the result of millions of years of co-evolution among algae, invertebrates, and fish. They have become crowded and complex environments, and the fish have evolved many ingenious ways of surviving. Most fishes found on coral reefs are ray-finned fishes, known for the characteristic sharp, bony rays and spines in their fins. These spines provide formidable defenses, and when erected they can usually be locked in place or are venomous. Many reef fish have also evolved cryptic coloration to confuse predators.
Coral reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colorful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specializations adapted to survival on the reefs.
Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans, but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species. Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99% of the world oceans.
However, loss and degradation of coral reef habitat, increasing pollution, and over-fishing including the use of destructive fishing practices, are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish.
Reef fish have also evolved complex adaptive behaviors. Small reef fish get protection from predators by hiding in reef crevices or by shoaling and schooling. Many reef fish confine themselves to one small neighborhood where every hiding place is known and can be immediately accessed. Others cruise the reefs for food in shoals but return to a known area to hide when they are inactive. Resting small fish are still vulnerable to attack by crevice predators, so many fish, such as triggerfish, squeeze into a small hiding place and wedge themselves by erecting their spines.
As an example of the adaptations made by reef fish, the yellow tang is a herbivore which feeds on benthic turf algae. They also provide cleaning services to marine turtles, by removing algal growth from their shells. They do not tolerate other fish with the same color or shape. When alarmed, the usually placid yellow tang can erect spines in its tail and slash at its opponent with rapid sideways movements.
Coral reefs are the result of millions of years of co-evolution among algae, invertebrates and fish. They have become crowded and complex environments, and the fish have evolved many ingenious ways of surviving. Most fishes found on coral reefs are ray-finned fishes, known for the characteristic sharp, bony rays and spines in their fins. These spines provide formidable defenses, and when erected they can usually be locked in place or are venomous. Many reef fish have also evolved cryptic coloration to confuse predators.
Ocean exploration is about making discoveries, searching for things that are unusual and unexpected. Ocean exploration, however, is not randomly wandering in hopes of finding something new. It is disciplined, systematic, and includes rigorous observations and documentation of biological, chemical, physical, geological, and archaeological aspects of the ocean.
Findings made through ocean exploration are fundamental to reducing unknowns in deep-ocean areas and providing the high-value environmental intelligence needed to address both current and emerging science and management needs. Exploration helps to ensure that ocean resources are not just managed but managed well, so those resources are around for future generations to enjoy.
Through ocean exploration, we can establish the baseline information needed to better understand environmental change, filling gaps in the unknown to deliver reliable and authoritative science that is foundational to providing foresight about future conditions and informing the decisions we confront every day on this dynamic planet. This same knowledge is often the only source for basic information needed to respond appropriately in the face of deep-sea disasters.
Information from ocean exploration is important to everyone. Unlocking the mysteries of deep-sea ecosystems can reveal new sources of medical drugs, food, energy resources, and other products. Information from deep-ocean exploration can help predict earthquakes and tsunamis and help us understand how we are affecting and being affected by changes in Earth’s climate and atmosphere.
Ocean exploration can improve ocean literacy and inspire young people to seek careers in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The challenges of exploring the deep ocean can provide the basis for technology and engineering innovations that can be applied in other situations.
Yet even as the importance of deep areas of the ocean in our everyday lives continues to increase, our knowledge of these areas remains limited – in many instances, we are “flying blind” when it comes to management, regulation, and resource use in deep-water areas.
Deep-sea exploration is the investigation of physical, chemical, and biological conditions on the seabed, for scientific or commercial purposes. Deep-sea exploration is considered as a relatively recent human activity compared to the other areas of geophysical research, as the depths of the sea have been investigated only during comparatively recent years. The ocean depths still remain as a largely unexplored part of the planet and form a relatively undiscovered domain.
In general, modern scientific Deep-sea exploration can be said to have begun when French scientist Pierre Simon de Laplace investigated the average depth of the Atlantic ocean by observing tidal motions registered on Brazilian and African coasts. He calculated the depth to be 3,962 m (13,000 ft), a value later proven quite accurate by soundings measurement. Later on, with increasing demand for submarine cables installment, accurate soundings was required and the first investigations of the sea bottom were undertaken. First deep-sea life forms were discovered in 1864 when Norwegian researchers obtained a sample of a stalked crinoid at a depth of 3,109 m (10,200 ft). The British Government sent out the Challenger expedition (a ship called HMS Challenger) in 1872 which discovered 715 new genera and 4,417 new species of marine organisms over the space of 4 years.
However, the voyage to the ocean bottom is still a challenging experience. Scientists are working to find ways to study this extreme environment from the shipboard. With the more sophisticated use of fiber optics, satellites, and remote-control robots, scientists one day may explore the deep sea from a computer screen on the deck rather than out of a porthole.
Coral reefs are the most diverse of all marine ecosystems. They teem with life, with perhaps one-quarter of all ocean species depending on reefs for food and shelter. This is a remarkable statistic when you consider that reefs cover just a tiny fraction (less than one percent) of the earth’s surface and less than two percent of the ocean bottom. Because they are so diverse, coral reefs are often called the rainforests of the sea.
Coral reefs are also very important to people. The value of coral reefs has been estimated at 30 billion U.S. dollars and perhaps as much as 172 billion U.S. dollars each year, providing food, protection of shorelines, jobs based on tourism, and even medicines.
Unfortunately, people also pose the greatest threat to coral reefs. Overfishing and destructive fishing, pollution, warming, changing ocean chemistry, and invasive species are all taking a huge toll. In some places, reefs have been entirely destroyed, and in many places reefs today are a pale shadow of what they once were.
Corals are related to sea anemones, and they all share the same simple structure, the polyp. The polyp is like a tin can open at just one end: the open end has a mouth surrounded by a ring of tentacles. The tentacles have stinging cells, called nematocysts, that allow the coral polyp to capture small organisms that swim too close. Inside the body of the polyp are digestive and reproductive tissues. Corals differ from sea anemones in their production of a mineral skeleton.
Shallow water corals that live in warm water often have another source of food, the zooxanthellae (pronounced zo-o-zan-THELL-ee). These single-celled algae photosynthesize and pass some of the food they make from the sun’s energy to their hosts, and in exchange the coral animal gives nutrients to the algae. It is this relationship that allows shallow water corals to grow fast enough to build the enormous structures we call reefs. The zooxanthellae also provide much of the color that corals have.
Individual coral polyps within a reef are typically very small—usually less than half an inch (or ~1.5 cm) in diameter. The largest polyps are found in mushroom corals, which can be more than 5 inches across. But because corals are colonial, the size of a colony can be much larger: big mounds can be the size of a small car, and a single branching colony can cover an entire reef.
Reefs, which are usually made up of many colonies, are much bigger still. The largest coral reef is the Great Barrier Reef, which spans 1,600 miles (2,600 km) off the east coast of Australia. It is so large that it can be seen from space!
It takes a long time to grow a big coral colony or a coral reef because each coral grows slowly. The fastest corals expand at more than 6 inches (15 cm) per year, but most grow less than an inch per year. Reefs themselves grow even more slowly because after the corals die, they break into smaller pieces and become compacted. Individual colonies can often live decades to centuries, and some deep-sea colonies have lived more than 4000 years. One way we know this is because corals lay down annual rings, just as trees do. These skeletons can tell us about what conditions were like hundreds or thousands of years ago. The Great Barrier Reef as it exists today began growing about 20,000 years ago.
The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is a grouping of 607 small islands in the Western Pacific about 2,500 miles southwest of Hawaii, lying just above the Equator. Generally speaking, the FSM comprises what is known as the Western and Eastern Caroline Islands.
While the country's total land area amounts to only 270.8 square miles, it occupies more than one million square miles of the Pacific Ocean and ranges 1,700 miles from West (Yap) to East (Kosrae). Each of the four States centers around one or more "high islands," and all but Kosrae include numerous atolls.
Yap State is made up of 4 large islands, 7 small islands, and 134 atolls, with a total land area of 45.6 square miles. Chuuk State has a total land area of 49.2 square miles and includes seven major island groups. Pohnpei State has 133.4 square miles of land area, of which 130 is accounted for by Pohnpei island, the largest in FSM. Kosrae is essentially one high island of 42.3 square miles.
The islands of the FSM are the result of volcanic activity millions of years ago resulting in islands and atolls of incredible variety. Some are tips of mountain peaks thrust above the surface and now surrounded by fringing reefs. Others are atolls -- islands that have sunk beneath the surface, leaving a ring of the coral barrier reef and tiny island islets encircling a coral and sand lagoon. And, still, others, are mixtures of atolls and high rigged islands within a lagoon.
The FSM enjoys a tropical climate, with relatively even, warm temperatures throughout the year.
The climate in the FSM averages 80° F year round, with highs in the high 80s and lows in the high 70s. Rainfall is heaviest during the summer months. The rainfall on each island varies, however, so check with the local visitor authority for anticipated dry and wet seasons. Trade winds come mainly from the northeast from December through June. Light tropical clothing is the norm year 'round in the FSM.
The people of the FSM are classified as Micronesians, although some inhabitants of Pohnpei State are of Polynesian origin. They are actually a heterogeneous mixture with different customs and traditions bound together by recent history and common aspiration.
The cultural diversity is typified by the existence of eight major indigenous languages, although English remains the official language of commerce. The cultural similarities are indicated by the importance of traditional extended family and clan systems found on each island.
The people of the FSM are culturally and linguistically Micronesian, with a small number of Polynesians living primarily on Nukuoro and Kapingamarangi atolls of Pohnpei State. The influence of European and Japanese contacts is also seen.
It can be said that each of the four States exhibits its own distinct culture and tradition, but there are also common cultural and economic bonds that are centuries old. For example, cultural similarities are evidenced in the importance of the traditional extended family and clan systems found on each island.
The most experienced diver or the complete novice, scuba diving is a close encounter of the most unique kind of dazzling rainbow world of coral and sea-life. you can choose to add an amazing and truly memorable dimension to your reef experience with the underwater magic of scuba diving and explore its beauty.
In the foreground is an orange-lined triggerfish displaying spines. Triggerfish have mouths that crush shells. Orange-lined triggerfish are particularly aggressive. The black and white fish are three-stripe damselfish and the unstriped fish are blue-green Chromis damselfish. If the triggerfish attacks, the damselfish will hide in the nearby pillar coral. If the triggerfish wants to hide, it will squeeze into a coral crevice and lock itself in place with its spines.
Coral reefs are the result of millions of years of coevolution among algae, invertebrates, and fish. They have become crowded and complex environments, and the fish have evolved many ingenious ways of surviving. Most fishes found on coral reefs are ray-finned fishes, known for the characteristic sharp, bony rays and spines in their fins. These spines provide formidable defenses, and when erected they can usually be locked in place or are venomous. Many reef fish have also evolved cryptic coloration to confuse predators.
Reef fish have also evolved complex adaptive behaviors. Small reef fish get protection from predators by hiding in reef crevices or by shoaling and schooling. Many reef fish confine themselves to one small neighborhood where every hiding place is known and can be immediately accessed. Others cruise the reefs for food in shoals but return to a known area to hide when they are inactive. Resting small fish are still vulnerable to attack by crevice predators, so many fish, such as triggerfish, squeeze into a small hiding place and wedge themselves by erecting their spines.
As an example of the adaptations made by reef fish, the yellow tang is a herbivore which feeds on benthic turf algae. They also provide cleaning services to marine turtles, by removing an algal growth from their shells. They do not tolerate other fish with the same color or shape. When alarmed, the usually placid yellow tang can erect spines in its tail and slash at its opponent with rapid sideways movements.
There are two major regions of coral reef development recognized; the Indo-Pacific (which includes the Pacific and Indian Oceans as well as the Red Sea), and the tropical western Atlantic (also known as the "wider" or "greater" Caribbean). Each of these two regions contains its own unique coral reef fish fauna with no natural overlap in species. Of the two regions, the richest by far in terms of reef fish diversity in the Indo-Pacific where there are an estimated 4,000–5,000 species of fishes associated with coral reef habitats. Another 500–700 species can be found in the greater Caribbean region.
Underwater diving in water-filled caves. It may be done as an extreme sport, a way of exploring flooded caves for scientific investigation, or for the search for and recovery of divers lost while diving for one of these reasons. The equipment used varies depending on the circumstances and ranges from breath hold to surface supplied, but almost all cave diving is done using scuba equipment, often in specialized configurations. Recreational cave diving is generally considered to be a type of technical diving due to the lack of a free surface during large parts of the dive, and often involves decompression.
It originated in the United Kingdom, stemming from the more common activity of caving. Its origins in the United States are more closely associated with scuba diving. Compared to caving and scuba diving, there are relatively few practitioners of cave diving. This is due in part to the specialized equipment and skill sets required, and in part because of the high potential risks due to the specific environment.
Despite these risks, water-filled caves attract scuba divers, cavers, and speleologists due to their often unexplored nature, and present divers with a technical diving challenge. Underwater caves have a wide range of physical features and can contain fauna not found elsewhere.
Reef fish are fish which live amongst or in close relation to coral reefs. Coral reefs form complex ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity. Among the myriad inhabitants, the fish stand out as colorful and interesting to watch. Hundreds of species can exist in a small area of a healthy reef, many of them hidden or well camouflaged. Reef fish have developed many ingenious specializations adapted to survival on the reefs.
Coral reefs occupy less than one percent of the surface area of the world oceans, but still they provide a home for 25 percent of all marine fish species. Reef habitats are a sharp contrast to the open water habitats that make up the other 99% of the world oceans.
However, loss and degradation of coral reef habitat, increasing pollution, and over fishing including the use of destructive fishing practices, are threatening the survival of the coral reefs and the associated reef fish.
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